Nationalism

The concept of nationalism gained prominence in the late 18th century, particularly following the French Revolution. This era introduced the principle of popular sovereignty, the belief that legitimate political authority derives from "the people." Political theorists began to articulate how collective self- rule should be based on a shared national identity. Nationalism, in this context, became a guiding principle linking cultural identity with political legitimacy. Intellectuals, poets, and historians began to elevate native languages, explore national histories, and cultivate a shared cultural consciousness. These cultural efforts, particularly in education and literature, formed the emotional and ideological groundwork for later political nationalism. National identity, once latent or scattered, was reawakened and expressed as a source of collective pride and eventual political demand. Before the 18th century, national sentiments appeared only sporadically, typically during war or crisis. However, a convergence of historical transformations enabled nationalism to become politically dominant. The rise of centralized monarchies displaced feudal loyalties and created larger, more cohesive states. At the same time, the secularization of education promoted vernacular languages over Latin and church dogma, allowing for more accessible national cultures. The rise of commerce and a dynamic bourgeoisie further fuelled demands for larger, unified political and economic territories. As these changes unfolded, the concept of the state shifted no longer defined by the monarch but by the collective identity of its people. This redefined state became a symbolic “fatherland” or “motherland,” deeply linked to national identity.

Academic Definitions

Contemporary political theorists define nationalism as the principle that national and political units should coincide. Lisa Wedeen emphasizes that nationalist ideologies presume a natural congruence between "the people" and the state. In this framework, a legitimate state must reflect the identity, will, and unity of a single national community. Scholars have proposed several major theories to explain the origins of nationalism. Primordialism, rooted in Romantic thought, claimed that nations have existed since ancient times. However, this view has been largely discredited by contemporary academics who see nations as historically contingent social constructs rather than timeless entities. Perennialism, a more flexible variant, suggests that modern nations have deep historical roots, though this perspective remains debated. The most widely accepted explanation today is modernization theory, which argues that nationalism emerged as a result of industrialization, urbanization, and the spread of mass education. According to this view, nations are imagined communities, and nationalism is a constructed tradition that binds people through shared sentiment and identity. Another significant approach is ethnosymbolism, advanced by Anthony D. Smith, which emphasizes the role of cultural myths, symbols, and traditions in the formation of national identity. Together, these theories provide diverse perspectives on how nationalism developed through historical, social, and cultural processes.

Nationalism and Ideological Flexibility

Nationalism is ideologically flexible and has been adopted across the political spectrum. It can support both conservative ideologies such as national conservatism and right- wing populism and leftist agendas like socialist or anti-colonial nationalism. Its perceived value varies based on its application. Nationalism has inspired movements for liberation and cultural pride but has also been linked to xenophobia, authoritarianism, and conflict. In extreme forms, it has been used to justify ethnic violence, suppress minorities, and undermine democratic values, as seen in the lead-up to both World Wars. The conceptual foundations of nationalism and sovereignty were refined in the early 17th century by legal scholar Hugo Grotius, whose work dealt with conflicts between emerging nation-states during Europe’s religious wars. Prior to the modern era, the term “nation” referred loosely to groups sharing culture, language, or religion. The modern use of “nationalism” began around 1798, gaining traction in the 19th century. Following World War I, the term acquired increasingly negative connotations, especially as nationalism was linked to destructive global conflicts. As Glenda Sluga notes, the 20th century brought growing disillusionment with nationalism, giving way to globalist ideologies.

Intellectual Origins and Cultural Foundations

Anthony D. Smith underscores the role of intellectuals in developing the ideological and cultural basis of nationalism. During the Age of Revolution, thinkers responded to declining religious authority by crafting new myths and symbols to legitimize political action and national identity. The rise of historicism, an interpretive framework based on the life cycle of cultures and people, provided fertile ground for the nationalist imagination. German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder played a foundational role in nationalist thought. In his 1772 Treatise on the Origin of Language, Herder emphasized the unifying power of a shared language and culture. He viewed patriotism as central to human fulfilment, arguing that each nation possesses its own form of perfection. Herder’s ideas laid the groundwork for linguistic nationalism and influenced movements for cultural and political unification, particularly in the German states

From Universalism to Particularism

The ideological shift from universalism to particularism marked a significant turning point in political thought. For centuries, political philosophy had emphasized universal values: shared human reason, moral unity, and religious cosmopolitanism. Early nationalism, especially in Western Europe and North America, retained some of these ideals, championing liberty, equality, and individual rights. However, nationalism soon evolved into a more exclusive ideology, celebrating the uniqueness of each nation’s language, culture, and historical destiny. In prioritizing national distinctiveness, it moved away from universal human values and toward a more parochial worldview.

English and American Nationalism

Modern nationalism found one of its earliest political expressions in 17th- century England during the Puritan Revolution. England, at the time a leader in scientific discovery and political reform, began to associate national identity with a divine historical mission. Thinkers like John Milton framed England as a model of liberty and moral leadership, aligning its national purpose with biblical themes. This religiously infused nationalism later gave rise to a more secular, liberal nationalism shaped by the political ideas of John Locke, which influenced emerging democracies. American nationalism was heavily inspired by this English foundation, but also by Enlightenment ideals. The American Revolution, led by figures such as Thomas Jefferson and Thomas Paine, was not only a struggle for independence but also an assertion of universal human rights. The Declaration of Independence expressed the belief that America’s national destiny was aligned with liberty, democracy, and progress for all humanity. American nationalism became an early example of a civic, inclusive, and philosophically grounded form of national identity.

French Nationalism and Revolutionary Universalism

The French Revolution gave rise to a powerful and ideologically charged form of nationalism. Influenced by the political philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, French nationalism emphasized the collective will of the people known as the “general will” as the foundation of legitimate political authority. French nationalists viewed their ideals liberty, equality, and fraternity as universally applicable, not confined to France alone. The revolution produced new civic rituals, patriotic festivals, national flags, and hymns that served as secular replacements for traditional religious practices.

One of the key innovations of the French model was the concept of the plebiscite: the idea that nations could form through the collective decision of their people. Military mobilization also reflected this ideological nationalism, as citizen- soldiers driven by patriotic duty replaced professional armies. However, as Napoleon spread these ideals across Europe, he also provoked resistance. In countries like Germany, nationalism turned inward, emphasizing cultural preservation rather than political universalism.

Nationalism in Asia and Africa

Nationalism in Asia and Africa emerged primarily in the early 20th century as a response to European imperialism. Leaders in these regions drew on both indigenous traditions and Western ideas of sovereignty and modern statehood to demand independence. In Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk dismantled the remnants of the Ottoman Empire and established a secular, nationalist republic. In India, Mahatma Gandhi led a mass movement rooted in nonviolent resistance, merging Indian cultural traditions with the principles of political self- determination. Elsewhere, Arab nationalism grew in opposition to colonial mandates, though often frustrated by European powers. In Africa and Southeast Asia, nationalist movements gradually evolved from elite-led petitions to mass mobilizations for independence. While Britain and France made partial accommodations such as granting limited autonomy to Egypt, Iraq, and India nationalists increasingly demanded full sovereignty. Japan, unlike many other Asian nations, used nationalism not to resist imperialism but to justify its own imperial ambitions, aligning with militarism and authoritarianism.

Nationalism and Patriotism

While often conflated, nationalism and patriotism represent distinct political and emotional orientations. Patriotism is rooted in ancient traditions of civic duty, justice, and loyalty to the political community. It values rule of law, moral responsibility, and dedication to the public good. Nationalism, on the other hand, is a modern ideology focused on cultural unity, shared identity, and the pursuit of statehood. It often demands emotional allegiance to the nation above other affiliations, including class, religion, or cosmopolitan ideals. Patriotism tends to unify diverse citizens within a legal and moral framework, while nationalism can be divisive emphasizing the uniqueness or superiority of one’s nation over others. In its more radical forms, nationalism has been associated with ethnic exclusivism, chauvinism, and democratic backsliding.

Nationalism, as both an ideology and a political force, has evolved from its 18th-century revolutionary origins into a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that continues to shape global politics. Rooted in the principle of popular sovereignty, it has drawn on cultural identity, shared history, and collective aspirations to legitimize political authority. Throughout history, nationalism has inspired struggles for liberation, statehood, and unity, while also fueling exclusion, xenophobia, and conflict. Its adaptability across the political spectrum and diverse cultural contexts demonstrates its enduring relevance. Yet, the tension between nationalism’s inclusive, civic potential and its capacity for division and authoritarianism remains unresolved. As the modern world grapples with globalization, migration, and shifting geopolitical realities, nationalism persists as both a source of solidarity and a challenge to universal ideals - a reminder that the balance between pride in one’s nation and respect for broader human values remains one of the defining challenges of political life.

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Nationalism