Why in News?
· The Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has extended the tenure of the expert committee examining the Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) notification for the Western Ghats after prolonged consultations with the six concerned States.
· The debate reflects the challenge of balancing biodiversity conservation, economic development, federalism, and the rights and livelihoods of local communities.
Western Ghats
· The Western Ghats are a 1,600 km-long mountain chain running parallel to India's western coast across Gujarat (small portion), Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, covering nearly 1,60,000 sq km.
· Global Significance
- Recognised as one of the 36 Global Biodiversity Hotspots by Conservation International.
- Among the world's eight ‘hottest hotspots’ because of exceptional endemism and high habitat loss.
- Declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2012) comprising 39 serial sites under Criteria (ix) and (x) for ecological and biological processes.
- Older than the Himalayas, having originated during the breakup of Gondwanaland nearly 150 million years ago.
Ecological Importance of the Western Ghats
Global Biodiversity Reservoir: The Western Ghats are among the richest biological regions in the world.
- Over 7,400 species of flowering plants, including more than 1,500 endemic species
- Around 139 mammal species, more than 500 bird species, nearly 290 freshwater fish species, many endemics around 180 amphibian species, nearly 80% endemic and approximately 325 globally threatened species.
- Flagship Species: Lion-tailed macaque, Nilgiri tahr, Nilgiri langur, Malabar civet, Great Indian hornbill and Malabar giant squirrel
- Example: Silent Valley National Park and Agasthyamalai Biosphere Reserve harbour several endemic species found nowhere else in the world.
Water Security: The Western Ghats are often described as the "Water Tower of Peninsular India."
- Major rivers originating here include Godavari, Krishna, Cauvery, Tungabhadra, Periyar, Bharathapuzha and Netravati.
- These rivers provide drinking water, irrigation and hydropower to millions of people across southern and western India.
Climate Regulation: The mountain chain intercepts the southwest monsoon, influencing rainfall across peninsular India.
- It also performs critical ecosystem functions: Carbon sequestration, groundwater recharge, soil conservation, flood moderation and temperature regulation.
- The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report highlights that protecting mountain forests is essential for climate resilience and disaster risk reduction.
Economic Importance: The Western Ghats support livelihoods through coffee plantations, tea, cardamom, pepper, rubber, arecanut, eco-tourism, hydropower and non-timber forest produce
- Millions of farmers, plantation workers and forest-dependent communities depend directly on these ecosystems.
Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA)
An Ecologically Sensitive Area (ESA) is a region notified under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, where environmentally damaging activities are regulated or prohibited to conserve fragile ecosystems while promoting sustainable livelihoods.
The objective is not to displace local communities but to ensure environmentally sustainable development.
Evolution of the ESA Proposal
Western Ghats Ecology Expert Panel (WGEEP), 2010: Chairman: Prof. Madhav Gadgil
- Major Recommendations: Declare the entire Western Ghats as an Ecologically Sensitive Area and cover around 1,29,000 sq km, nearly 64% of the Western Ghats, across 142 talukas in 44 districts.
- Categorise the region into: ESZ-I (highest protection), ESZ-II and ESZ-III.
- Ban new mining, thermal power plants and highly polluting industries in ecologically fragile zones, promote decentralised governance through Gram Sabhas and encourage community-based conservation and sustainable development.
- Significance: The Gadgil Committee adopted a bottom-up approach, emphasising ecological integrity, local participation and precautionary conservation.
Kasturirangan High-Level Working Group, 2012: Constituted after strong opposition from States and local stakeholders.
- Key Recommendations: Protect only natural landscapes, excluding plantations and human settlements, reduce ESA coverage to approximately 59,940 sq km, nearly 37% of the Western Ghats, permit regulated development in cultural landscapes while protecting biodiversity-rich forests and restrict mining, quarrying and red-category industries only within identified natural landscapes.
Difference Between Gadgil and Kasturirangan Reports
Aspect Gadgil Committee Kasturirangan Committee
1. Conservation approach Precautionary and Development-conservation
community-based balance
2. ESA coverage Entire WGs (64%) Natural landscapes only (37%)
3. Governance Gram Sabha-centred Administrative regulation
4. Development activities Greater restrictions Regulated development permitted
Progress of ESA Notification
Based on the Kasturirangan Report, the first draft ESA notification was issued in 2014.
Between 2015 and 2026, multiple draft notifications were issued because consensus could not be achieved among the six States.
In 2022, the Centre constituted an expert committee under Sanjay Kumar, former Director General of Forests, to examine State-level concerns.
Gujarat and Goa have broadly agreed to the proposal, while discussions continue with Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.
The latest draft also provides flexibility for State-wise or phased implementation, reflecting cooperative federalism.
Karnataka: The Core of the Debate
Karnataka contains one of the largest stretches of the Western Ghats.
10 districts fall within the Western Ghats.
Nearly 20,668 sq km has been proposed for ESA notification.
Around 23.4% of Karnataka's population resides within the Western Ghats region.
Successive State governments, irrespective of political affiliation, have opposed the notification due to concerns over livelihoods and development.
Major Concerns Raised by Karnataka
Impact on Agriculture and Plantations: Communities fear restrictions on coffee cultivation, arecanut plantations, rubber plantations, pepper cultivation and mixed farming
- Example: Kodagu and Chikkamagaluru depend heavily on coffee-based economies.
Mining and Quarrying: Restrictions on mining and stone quarrying could reduce employment and State revenues.
- However, environmental experts argue that unregulated quarrying has contributed to landslides, habitat fragmentation and groundwater depletion.
Infrastructure Development: The State fears delays in road expansion, rail connectivity, hydropower projects, tourism infrastructure and transmission lines
- Balancing ecological security with infrastructure needs remains a major governance challenge.
Satellite-Based Mapping: Residents argue that satellite imagery cannot accurately distinguish between natural forests, coffee plantations, arecanut gardens, coconut plantations and rubber plantations
- Consequently, cultivated lands may be mistakenly classified as forests. Stakeholders have demanded extensive ground verification before finalising ESA boundaries.
Fear of Eviction and Livelihood Restrictions: Many communities believe ESA notification could eventually result in land-use restrictions, reduced property rights, eviction from villages and constraints on agriculture and collection of minor forest produce.
- Although the ESA notification does not mandate displacement, inadequate communication has generated widespread apprehension among local residents.
Findings of the Karnataka Field Study
A field study covering villages around Kudremukh National Park, Kali Tiger Reserve, Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary, Mundigekere Bird Sanctuary, and protected areas in Chikkamagaluru, Kodagu, Shivamogga, Uttara Kannada and Udupi highlighted the complexity of conservation.
Positive Findings: Many local communities supported regulation of environmentally destructive activities such as illegal stone quarrying, unregulated mining, large tourism infrastructure and ropeway projects inside forests.
- Several villagers acknowledged that forest degradation adversely affected agriculture, water availability and wildlife.
Example: Communities near Kali Tiger Reserve favoured restrictions on quarrying due to increasing landslide risks.
Major Concerns of Local Communities
Restrictions on Livelihoods: Residents reported restrictions on collection of minor forest produce, grazing, agricultural expansion and traditional livelihood practices
- Even villages with recognised forest rights experienced operational difficulties.
Rehabilitation and Relocation: Some households accepted voluntary rehabilitation packages and others feared gradual abandonment of villages due to declining populations and shrinking public services.
Forest Rights Issues: Residents complained that several genuine claims under the Forest Rights Act, 2006 remained pending or rejected, including claims of long-settled non-tribal communities residing near reserved forests for generations.
Mapping Concerns: Stakeholders argued that ESA boundaries were largely based on satellite imagery without sufficient ground verification.
- They demanded village-level ecological surveys, physical verification and greater participation of Gram Sabhas before final notification.
Indigenous Communities: Partners in Conservation
The Western Ghats are home to several indigenous communities such as Soliga, Kuruba, Kattunayakan, Irula and Paniya
These communities possess rich traditional ecological knowledge and have historically conserved forests through sustainable harvesting, sacred groves and community stewardship.
The Forest Rights Act, 2006 recognises Community Forest Resource Rights, while the Convention on Biological Diversity emphasises the role of indigenous knowledge in biodiversity conservation.
Protecting indigenous communities strengthens both ecological conservation and biocultural diversity.
Major Challenges in Western Ghats Conservation
Development-Environment Conflict: Economic activities such as mining, quarrying, roads, hydropower and plantations often conflict with biodiversity conservation.
Climate Change: The IPCC Sixth Assessment Report identifies mountain ecosystems as highly vulnerable to climate change, increasing the risks of extreme rainfall, landslides, biodiversity loss and forest degradation
- Example: Kerala floods (2018) and repeated landslides in Wayanad illustrate the growing vulnerability of the Western Ghats.
Habitat Fragmentation: Linear infrastructure projects, dams and expanding settlements fragment wildlife habitats and elephant corridors, increasing human–wildlife conflict.
Weak Cooperative Federalism: Persistent disagreements between the Union Government and States have delayed ESA notification for more than a decade, despite repeated draft notifications. Discussions continue on a phased or State-wise implementation of approximately 56,825 sq km of Ecologically Sensitive Area.
Governance Deficit: Limited public consultation, weak coordination among departments, delayed implementation and inadequate scientific field verification
Importance of ESA Notification
Ecological Significance: Conserves endemic flora and fauna, protects ecological connectivity, prevents habitat fragmentation and regulates environmentally harmful activities.
Water Security: Healthy forests maintain river flows, groundwater recharge and watershed stability, ensuring long-term water security for millions.
Climate Action: Western Ghats forests function as major carbon sinks and contribute to India's commitments under Paris Agreement, Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) and Green India Mission
Disaster Risk Reduction: Intact ecosystems reduce floods, landslides, soil erosion and sedimentation of reservoirs
- The National Disaster Management Authority emphasises ecosystem-based disaster risk reduction for mountain regions.
Important Supreme Court Judgments
T.N. Godavarman Thirumulpad Case: Expanded the legal definition of forests and strengthened forest conservation.
Vellore Citizens Welfare Forum v. Union of India (1996): Recognised sustainable Development, precautionary Principle and polluter Pays Principle as integral parts of Indian environmental jurisprudence.
Lafarge Umiam Mining Case (2011): Emphasised balancing economic development with environmental sustainability and important Reports
IPBES Global Assessment Report (2019): Around one million species globally face extinction, habitat destruction is the primary driver and calls for landscape-level conservation and ecosystem restoration.
India State of Forest Report: Highlights the ecological significance of the Western Ghats while cautioning against increasing habitat fragmentation.
National Biodiversity Action Plan: Recommends community participation, ecosystem restoration and biodiversity mainstreaming into development planning
International Best Practices
Costa Rica: Implements Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES), providing financial incentives to landowners for conserving forests.
Nepal: Community Forest Management has improved forest cover while enhancing local livelihoods through participatory governance.
Australia: Management of the Great Barrier Reef integrates scientific monitoring, adaptive governance and stakeholder participation.
Way Forward
Scientific and Evidence-Based Delineation: Combine satellite imagery with extensive ground surveys + Periodically update ecological maps using GIS and biodiversity assessments.
Participatory Governance: Empower Gram Sabhas and Panchayati Raj Institutions + Ensure Free, Prior and Informed Consent of local communities wherever applicable.
Strengthen Livelihood Security: Promote eco-tourism, agroforestry and sustainable plantations + Introduce Payment for Ecosystem Services to compensate communities conserving forests.
Recognise Forest Rights: Expedite genuine claims under the Forest Rights Act + Integrate indigenous ecological knowledge into conservation planning.
Cooperative Federalism: Strengthen Centre-State coordination + Establish a permanent Western Ghats Conservation Authority for coordinated ecosystem management.
Nature-Based Solutions: Restore degraded forests + Protect wildlife corridors + Promote climate-resilient landscape planning.
Continuous Ecological Monitoring: Regular biodiversity assessments + Climate vulnerability mapping and independent environmental audits.
